Introduction

The increasing ubiquity of digital technology has profoundly transformed human interactions and social structures. This omnipresence brings both significant opportunities for personal and collective development and complex challenges, especially in shaping new behavioral patterns. The integration of connected devices and online platforms into daily life has fostered the emergence of behavioral phenomena that, in certain circumstances, can become problematic (Taylor, 2023). Academic attention has focused on understanding the nature of these behaviors, their underlying causes, and their implications for individual and social well-being. This examination is fundamental for designing effective strategies that promote the healthy use of technology. This review addresses the main problematic behaviors associated with the digital age, analyzing their manifestations, consequences, and the solutions available to mitigate their adverse effects. It seeks to offer a comprehensive perspective that contributes to the discussion on managing these phenomena in an increasingly digital society.

Overview of problematic digital behaviors

Immersion in the digital environment has given rise to various behaviors that, when they exceed certain thresholds of intensity or frequency, can become problematic. These manifestations range from the excessive use of devices to the anxiety generated by disconnection, and affect individuals of all ages, with particular vulnerability in young people and adolescents (Han et al., 2023).

Digital addictions: conceptualization and current manifestations

Digital addictions, as a general term, encompass the compulsive use of various technologies and platforms, including the internet, smartphones, video games, and social media (Tülübaş et al., 2023) (Karakose et al., 2023). These are characterized by excessive preoccupation, a loss of control over usage time, and continuation of the activity despite negative consequences (Basel et al., 2020). University students, for example, exhibit a marked susceptibility to digital addiction, with mean scores of 54 ± 12 on the Digital Addiction Scale (DAS) in one particular sample (Han et al., 2023). Smartphone addiction (SPA) and social media use (SMTU) are significant factors in exacerbating addictive digital behaviors (Aydin & Kuş, 2023). Research on this phenomenon has intensified, with growth in the last five years, initially focusing on smartphone addiction and then expanding to psychosocial factors and, more recently, to family and personal factors that influence these behaviors (Tülübaş et al., 2023).

Nomophobia: dependence and fear of disconnection

Nomophobia, a contraction of “no-mobile-phone phobia,” describes the irrational fear of being without a mobile phone or being unable to use it (Aydin & Kuş, 2023). This condition manifests as a form of anxiety associated with technological dependence, where disruption of connectivity generates significant distress (Çobanoğlu et al., 2021). A study with nursing students found a moderate positive correlation between levels of nomophobia, smartphone addiction, and digital addiction, with smartphone addiction exerting a considerable positive effect on nomophobia (β = 0.765; p < 0.01) (Çobanoğlu et al., 2021). This phenomenon has become more pronounced following events such as COVID-19 lockdowns, which intensified the use of digital devices and, consequently, the prevalence of nomophobia and smartphone addiction among adolescents (Aydin & Kuş, 2023). Nomophobia underscores the deep symbiosis between the individual and their mobile device, revealing a psychological vulnerability to the potential absence of connectivity.

Phubbing: impact on interpersonal relationships

Phubbing, a combination of “phone” and “snubbing,” denotes the act of ignoring a person in a face-to-face social interaction to pay attention to one’s mobile phone (Abeele, 2020)(GONG et al., 2019). This practice is common, and its effects on social relationships have been the subject of study (Sun & Yoon, 2023). The prevalence of phubbing can be significant, reaching 49.3% in a sample of adolescents and young adults in India (Davey et al., 2018). The main predictors of this behavior include internet and smartphone addiction, fear of missing out (FOMO), and a lack of self-control (Davey et al., 2018)(Chatterjee, 2020). Phubbing negatively affects commitment and satisfaction in friendships (Sun & Yoon, 2023), undermining the quality of social interaction by generating feelings of exclusion and attentional conflict (Abeele, 2020). This behavior is also associated with impaired mental health, including depression and anxiety (Davey et al., 2018).

Technological dependence: causes, psychosocial factors and risk contexts

Technology dependence, a broader concept encompassing digital addictions and nomophobia, stems from a complex interplay of factors. Among these, body image satisfaction and time management are significantly correlated with digital addiction in university students (Han et al., 2023). Specifically, greater body dissatisfaction and ineffective time management are associated with higher levels of dependence (Han et al., 2023). Psychosocial factors such as social norms, technology overload, and disruptive notifications also contribute to phubbing (Sun & Yoon, 2023). Furthermore, a lack of self-control is a significant predictor of smartphone addiction and phubbing (Sun & Yoon, 2023)(Chatterjee, 2020). Adolescents, in particular, are susceptible to these dependencies, with the relationship between digital technology use and mental health potentially influenced by social comparisons, negative feedback, and risky online self-presentation (Moroney et al., 2022). Family context and peer relationships also modulate the manifestation of these behaviors (Garnefski & Diekstra, 1996) (Turasan Alpaslan & Önal, 2024).

Implications and consequences of problematic behaviors

Problematic behaviors stemming from the use of digital technology are not limited to the individual sphere but extend to multiple dimensions of life, affecting health, interpersonal relationships, and development. Understanding these repercussions is fundamental to effectively addressing the problem.

Effects on mental health and emotional well-being

Digital addiction is linked to various mental health problems, including depression, anxiety, stress, and loneliness (Kaur & Mehndroo, 2024; Ime et al., 2024). Adolescents who spend considerable time on digital technologies and send many text messages experience an increase in symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and behavioral problems (George et al., 2018). Similarly, phubbing is associated with depression and distress (Davey et al., 2018; 2020). Although digital technology use can intensify both positive and negative mental states (Moreno et al., 2022), greater interaction with technology is correlated with a higher risk of depression (Moreno et al., 2022). Public health measures, such as those imposed during the COVID-19 pandemic, can also contribute to the deterioration of mental health in young people, with 38% of them meeting criteria for moderate or severe psychological distress, which underlines vulnerability in contexts of social isolation (Rauschenberg et al., 2021).

Impact on family, social and work dynamics

Technology dependence and associated behaviors significantly alter interpersonal dynamics. Phubbing, for example, negatively affects commitment and satisfaction in friendships (Sun & Yoon, 2023). Negative perceptions of family, school, and peer support directly impact adolescents’ emotional and behavioral problems (Garnefski & Diekstra, 1996). A study of 476 high school students showed that a negative perception of family is related to emotional and behavioral dysfunction, while a negative perception of school is specifically linked to behavioral problems, and a negative perception of peers to emotional problems (Garnefski & Diekstra, 1996). Within the family, inappropriate technology use can generate conflict and erode communication, making parental social control crucial to protecting family members from distorted behaviors (Nursyifa, 2019).

Educational and adolescent development challenges

Excessive screen time and digital technology use present specific challenges for the development of children and adolescents (Cullen et al., 2024). While digital technologies offer educational benefits, prolonged use can have negative effects on visual and auditory health, as well as physical development, such as pain syndromes (Cullen et al., 2024). For adolescents, the amount of daily time spent using digital technology shows weak associations with well-being, and a direct causal relationship cannot be established (Odgers & Jensen, 2020). However, while digital media use during the COVID-19 pandemic mitigated loneliness, it was also associated with increased distress when use was addictive (Marciano et al., 2022). Education and awareness-raising about the adverse effects of digital addiction on mental health are crucial for educational institutions (Kaur & Mehndroo, 2024).

Solutions and strategies to address digital challenges

Addressing problematic digital behaviors requires a multifaceted approach that includes prevention, intervention, and the creation of supportive environments. Strategies must be tailored to the specific needs of the affected populations, from children to young adults.

Prevention and digital education

Preventing problematic digital behaviors must begin with robust digital education (Colder Carras et al., 2024). This involves teaching young people about healthy technology use, potential risks, and self-regulation skills (Colder Carras et al., 2024). School-based intervention programs, especially externally led ones that actively involve parents or target at-risk youth, have proven effective in reducing problematic digital technology use (Žmavc et al., 2025). A combined approach to education on healthy lifestyles, such as diet, exercise, and sleep, can reduce nomophobia among students (Çobanoğlu et al., 2021). It is crucial that educational policies implement practices that promote balanced digital media use and raise awareness of the negative effects of digital addiction on mental health (Kaur & Mehndroo, 2024).

Therapeutic and technological interventions (CBT, digital detox, apps)

Therapeutic interventions, particularly cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), are highly effective in reducing the symptoms of digital addiction, such as anxiety, depression, and internet gaming disorders (Lu et al., 2025). Digital CBT (dCBT) is emerging as a scalable solution for problems such as insomnia, offering access to evidence-based treatments through software (Espie & Henry, 2023). CBT-based interventions have also been shown to improve anxiety and depression related to digital addiction in children and adolescents (Ding & Li, 2023).

Furthermore, digital interventions for promoting mental health in children and adolescents have shown a significant effect with a moderate effect size (g = 0.43) (Chen et al., 2024). These include mobile applications, virtual reality, and telemedicine services (Chen et al., 2024). Mobile applications and web-based interventions have also been shown to be effective in reducing depression, anxiety, and stress in university students (Harith et al., 2022)(Sriati et al., 2023).

Other effective interventions include:

• Group counseling: It has a considerable effect on improving self-control and reducing levels of Internet addiction (Lu et al., 2025).
• Integrated prevention programs: These can be valuable tools for addressing digital addiction (Lu et al., 2025).
• Physical exercise: Reduces scores for internet addiction, depression, and interpersonal sensitivity (Lu et al., 2025).

However, current evidence on some interventions is still weak, which underlines the need for more rigorous studies with larger samples (Lu et al., 2025).

The role of family, school, and social environments

The family exerts a protective or risky influence on digital behaviors. Parents can increase their awareness of the negative effects of technology and exercise active social control to protect their children (Nursyifa, 2019). Positively perceived family support can mitigate emotional and behavioral problems in adolescents (Garnefski & Diekstra, 1996). Schools are strategic settings for prevention, with interventions that can reduce problematic technology use (Žmavc et al., 2025). Combining home and school education fosters more conscious and safer technology use. Social environments, including peer influence, are also key factors in the adoption of healthy digital habits (Evans et al., 1992).

Towards a healthy and conscious use of technology

Promoting healthy technology use involves fostering critical digital literacy and self-regulation. This includes developing individuals’ ability to manage their online time, evaluate information and interactions, and disconnect when necessary (Colder Carras et al., 2024). The key lies in a balanced approach where technology is a tool for enrichment, not a source of dependency (Dienlin & Johannes, 2020). Recommendations for the use of digital technologies in schools and early childhood education centers emphasize the importance of interventions that reduce risks at different developmental stages (Cullen et al., 2024). This enables young people to acquire essential digital skills and access opportunities while minimizing negative impacts (Cullen et al., 2024).

Conclusion

Problematic behaviors in the digital age pose a significant challenge to public health and social well-being. Phenomena such as digital addiction, nomophobia, and phubbing affect the mental health, interpersonal relationships, and development of children and adolescents. The complexity of these behaviors, influenced by psychosocial and technological factors, demands a coordinated response. Effective strategies to mitigate these risks include digital literacy and prevention programs, evidence-based therapeutic interventions such as Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, and the fostering of a supportive environment involving family and school. Promoting self-control and awareness of technology use are essential steps toward cultivating a healthier relationship with the digital world. While progress has been made, current evidence suggests the need for more rigorous research and better-designed interventions to comprehensively address these evolving challenges.

References

Taylor, K. (2023). The social diagnoses of digital addictions: Technophobic ambivalences, the limits of the natural and imperatives of self-governance in the information age. In Sociology of Health & Illness (Vol. 46, Issue S1, pp. 18–36). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.13624

Han, S.-J., Nagduar, S., & Yu, H.-J. (2023). Digital Addiction and Related Factors among College Students. In Healthcare (Vol. 11, Issue 22, p. 2943). MDPI AG. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11222943

Tülübaş, T., Karakose, T., & Papadakis, S. (2023). A Holistic Investigation of the Relationship between Digital Addiction and Academic Achievement among Students. In European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education (Vol. 13, Issue 10, pp. 2006–2034). MDPI AG. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe13100143

Karakose, T., Yıldırım, B., Tülübaş, T., & Kardas, A. (2023). A comprehensive review on emerging trends in the dynamic evolution of digital addiction and depression. In Frontiers in Psychology (Vol. 14). Frontiers Media SA. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1126815

Basel, A., McAlaney, J., Skinner, T., Pleva, M., & Ali, R. (2020). Defining digital addiction: Key features from the literature. In Psihologija (Vol. 53, Issue 3, pp. 237–253). National Library of Serbia. https://doi.org/10.2298/psi191029017a

Aydin, MK, & Kuş, M. (2023). Nomophobia and smartphone addiction amidst COVID-19 home confinement: the parallel mediating role of digital gaming and social media tools usage across secondary school students. In Frontiers in Psychology (Vol. 14). Frontiers Media SA. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1175555

Çobanoğlu, A., Bahadir‐Yilmaz, E., & Kiziltan, B. (2021). The relationship between nursing students’ digital and smartphone addiction levels and nomophobia: A descriptive, correlational study. In Perspectives in Psychiatric Care (Vol. 57, Issue 4, pp. 1727–1734). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1111/ppc.12742

Abeele, M. V. (2020). The Social Consequences of Phubbing. In R. Ling, L. Fortunati, G. Goggin, S.S. Lim, & Y. Li (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Mobile Communication and Society (pp. 157–174). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190864385.013.11

GONG, Y., CHEN, Z., XIE, J., & XIE, X. (2019). Phubbing: Antecedents, consequences and functioning mechanisms. In Advances in Psychological Science (Vol. 27, Issue 7, pp. 1258–1267). China Science Publishing & Media Ltd. https://doi.org/10.3724/sp.j.1042.2019.01258

Sun, J., & Yoon, D. (2023). Not My Fault to Phub Friends! Individual, Social, and Technological Influences on Phubbing and Its Consequences. In SG Fashoto (Ed.), Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies (Vol. 2023, pp. 1–12). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/4059010

Davey, A., Davey, S., Raghav, S., Singh, J., Singh, N., Blachnio, A., & Przepiórkaa, A. (2018). Predictors and consequences of “Phubbing” among adolescents and youth in India: An impact evaluation study. In Journal of Family and Community Medicine (Vol. 25, Issue 1, p. 35). Medknow. https://doi.org/10.4103/jfcm.jfcm_71_17

Chatterjee, S. (2020). Antecedents of phubbing: from technological and psychological perspectives. In Journal of Systems and Information Technology (Vol. 22, Issue 2, pp. 161–178). Emerald. https://doi.org/10.1108/jsit-05-2019-0089

Moroney, E., Lee, S.S., Ebbert, A.M., & Luthar, S.S. (2022). Digital media use frequency, online behaviors, and risk for negative mental health in adolescents in high-achieving schools. In Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry (Vol. 28, Issue 1, pp. 237–254). SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.1177/13591045221108834

GARNEFSKI, N., & DIEKSTRA, RFW (1996). Perceived Social Support from Family, School, and Peers: Relationship with Emotional and Behavioral Problems among Adolescents. In Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (Vol. 35, Issue 12, pp. 1657–1664). Elsevier BV. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199612000-00018

Turasan Alpaslan, D., & Önal, N. (2024). INVESTIGATION OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS’ EXPOSURE TO PHUBBING BEHAVIOR. In Eğitim Teknolojisi Kuram ve Uygulama (Vol. 14, Issue 2, pp. 244–259). Education Technology Theory and Practice. https://doi.org/10.17943/etku.1399059

Kaur, G., & Mehndroo, M. (2024). Digital addiction and its impact on the mental well-being of adolescents. In Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies in Education (Vol. 13, Issue S1). STAR Scholars Network. https://doi.org/10.32674/vf7rxa68

Ime, Y., Akyıl, Y., & Çağlar, A. (2024). The examination of the relationships among digital addiction, loneliness, shyness, and social anxiety in adolescents. In Anales de Psicología (Vol. 40, Issue 2, pp. 236–241). University of Murcia Press. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.579801

George, MJ, Russell, MA, Piontak, JR, & Odgers, CL (2018). Concurrent and Subsequent Associations Between Daily Digital Technology Use and High-Risk Adolescents’ Mental Health Symptoms. In Child Development (Vol. 89, Issue 1, pp. 78–88). Oxford University Press (OUP). https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12819

(2020). Emerging Consequences of Phubbing among Adults. In Indian Journal of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology . Institute of Medico-legal Publications Private Limited. https://doi.org/10.37506/ijfmt.v14i4.12936

Moreno, MA, Binger, K., Minich, M., Zhao, Q., & Eickhoff, J. (2022). Adolescent Digital Technology Interactions and Importance: Associations with Depression and Well-Being. In Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking . SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2021.0294

Rauschenberg, C., Schick, A., Goetzl, C., Roehr, S., Riedel-Heller, S.G., Koppe, G., Durstewitz, D., Krumm, S., & Reininghaus, U. (2021). Social isolation, mental health, and use of digital interventions in youth during the COVID-19 pandemic: A nationally representative survey. In European Psychiatry (Vol. 64, Issue 1). Royal College of Psychiatrists. https://doi.org/10.1192/j.eurpsy.2021.17

Nursyifa, A. (2019). The Socialization of the Important of Family Roles as Prevention Actions toward the Negative Impact of Technology on Children in the Digital Age [Sosialisasi Peran Penting Keluarga Sebagai Upaya Pencegahan Dampak Negatif Teknologi pada Anak dalam Era Digital]. In Proceeding of Community Development (Vol. 2, p. 648). PT. Kresna Acitya Nusantara Mediatama. https://doi.org/10.30874/comdev.2018.371

Cullen, J., Muntz, A., Marsh, S., Simmonds, L., Mayes, J., O’Neill, K., & Duncan, S. (2024). Impacts of digital technologies on child and adolescent health: recommendations for safer screen use in educational settings. In New Zealand Medical Journal (Vol. 137, Issue 1598, pp. 9–13). Pasifika Medical Association Group. https://doi.org/10.26635/6965.6565

Odgers, CL, & Jensen, M.R. (2020). Annual Research Review: Adolescent mental health in the digital age: facts, fears, and future directions. In Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (Vol. 61, Issue 3, pp. 336–348). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13190

Marciano, L., Ostroumova, M., Schulz, P.J., & Camerini, A.-L. (2022). Digital Media Use and Adolescents’ Mental Health During the Covid-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. In Frontiers in Public Health (Vol. 9). Frontiers Media SA. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2021.793868

Colder Carras, M., Aljuboori, D., Shi, J., Date, M., Karkoub, F., García Ortiz, K., Abreha, FM, & Thrul, J. (2024). Prevention and Health Promotion Interventions for Young People in the Context of Digital Well-Being: Rapid Systematic Review. In Journal of Medical Internet Research (Vol. 26, p. e59968). JMIR Publications Inc. https://doi.org/10.2196/59968

Žmavc, M., Horvat, J., Židan, M., & Selak, Š. (2025). The effectiveness of school-based interventions to reduce problematic digital technology use and screen time: A systematic review and meta-analysis. In Journal of Behavioral Addictions (Vol. 14, Issue 2, pp. 571–589). Akademiai Kiado Zrt. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.2025.00043

Lu, P., Qiu, J., Huang, S., Wang, X., Han, S., Zhu, S., Ning, Y., Zeng, F., & Yuan, Y. (2025). Interventions for Digital Addiction: Umbrella Review of Meta-Analyses. In Journal of Medical Internet Research (Vol. 27, p. e59656). JMIR Publications Inc. https://doi.org/10.2196/59656

Espie, CA, & Henry, AL (2023). Disseminating cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for insomnia at scale: capitalizing on the potential of digital CBT to deliver clinical guideline care. In Journal of Sleep Research (Vol. 32, Issue 6). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.14025

Ding, K., & Li, H. (2023). Digital Addiction Intervention for Children and Adolescents: A Scoping Review. In International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (Vol. 20, Issue 6, p. 4777). MDPI AG. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20064777

Chen, T., Ou, J., Li, G., & Luo, H. (2024). Promoting mental health in children and adolescents through digital technology: a systematic review and meta-analysis. In Frontiers in Psychology (Vol. 15). Frontiers Media SA. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1356554

Harith, S., Backhaus, I., Mohbin, N., Ngo, H.T., & Khoo, S. (2022). Effectiveness of digital mental health interventions for university students: an umbrella review. In PeerJ (Vol. 10, p. e13111). PeerJ. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.13111

Sriati, A., Kurniawan, K., Senjaya, S., Khoirunnisa, K., Muslim, RNI, Putri, AM, Aghnia, N., & Fitriani, N. (2023). The Effectiveness of Digital-Based Psychotherapy in Overcoming Psychological Problems in College Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Scoping Review. In Journal of Holistic Nursing (Vol. 42, Issue 2_suppl, pp. S26–S39). SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.1177/08980101231162990

Evans, W.N., Oates, WE, & Schwab, R.M. (1992). Measuring Peer Group Effects: A Study of Adolescent Behavior. In Journal of Political Economy (Vol. 100, Issue 5, pp. 966–991). University of Chicago Press. https://doi.org/10.1086/261848

Dienlin, T., & Johannes, N. (2020). The impact of digital technology use on adolescent well-being. In Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience (Vol. 22, Issue 2, pp. 135–142). Informa UK Limited. https://doi.org/10.31887/dcns.2020.22.2/tdienlin